Journal of Mining and Metallurgy, Section B: Metallurgy
Journal of Mining and Metallurgy, Section B: Metallurgy -an international medium for the publication of contributions on the theory and practice of metallurgy
University of Belgrade, Technical Faculty in Bor
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Algorithm to optimize thermodynamic parameters: A review
Computational thermodynamics provides essential information for materials design. The CALPHAD (CALculation of PHAse Diagrams) method based on thermodynamic databases can be used for thermodynamic optimization and for calculating phase diagrams and thermodynamic properties in multicomponent systems. This article reviews the algorithms implemented in software for optimizing thermodynamic parameters. These software tools offer strong support for developing accurate thermodynamic databases. Recent advances in software and algorithms for thermodynamic parameter optimization are summarized, and their respective characteristics and potential limitations are analyzed. Finally, the development trends of software and algorithms for thermodynamic parameter optimization are discussed. This review will help interested readers understand the principles of thermodynamic optimization and contribute to the advancement of related algorithms.
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Dissolution kinetic mechanisms of FeCr₂O₄ spinel in MgO-Al₂O₃-SiO₂ slag system: Elemental dissolution and component diffusion
The molten chromite reduction direct alloying process serves as a pivotal metallurgical technology in stainless steel production, offering advantages such as reduced carbon consumption and improved production efficiency. In this study, to reveal the dissolution mechanism of chromite, pure phase of synthetic FeCr2O4, the main component of chromite, was used to replace chromite with complex compositions. The dissolution kinetics of FeCr2O4 in MgO-Al2O3-SiO2 slag were systematically investigated as functions of stirring intensity, MgO/ SiO2, and temperature, revealing its non-isothermal reactive dissolution characteristics. Experimental results demonstrated that the solubility of Cr2O3 exhibited a trend of initial increase followed by subsequent decrease as the MgO/SiO2 mass ratio increased. The maximum solubility was observed at a MgO/SiO2 mass ratio of 0.56. Additionally, temperature-related studies indicated that the dissolution of FeCr2O4 is progressively enhanced with increasing temperature under elevated thermal conditions (1500-1600 ℃). Meanwhile, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses confirmed that the interfacial reaction between FeCr2O4 and slag components generated MgAl2O4, MgCr2O4 and MgO-xFeO solid solution, forming a boundary layer on the surface of unreacted FeCr2O4.The dissolution reaction on the surface of FeCr2O4 was the rate-controlling step in the dissolution process. The calculated activation energy of the dissolution process was 65.43 kJ·mol-1.
Evolution of microstructure under different homogenization conditions and its effect on recrystallization processes during hot rolling of AA5182 alloy
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Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!-- [if gte mso 10]> <![endif]-->This study investigates microstructure development of AA5182 Al-Mg alloy under various homogenization conditions and how these conditions affect recrystallization processes and texture development during the laboratory hot-rolling. Homogenization treatments were conducted for 16 h at 490°C and at 550°C for various times. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) characterization including energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) revealed the presence of Al3(Fe,Mn) and Alm(Fe,Mn) phases as Fe/Mn-bearing microconstituents in as-cast state. These transformed into Al6(Fe,Mn) and α-Al(Fe,Mn)Si during homogenization treatments. The treatments also led to precipitation of Al6(Mn,Fe) and α-Al(Fe,Mn)Si dispersoid particles. Results of electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) indicated that a weak deformation texture was present after the hot-rolling. The morphology of grains and degree of restoration were significantly influenced by homogenization conditions. The distribution and density of dispersoids had a strong effect on the mechanisms of recovery and recrystallization.
The influence of Cu content on microstructure and mechanical properties of PM-fabricated Ti-18Nb-xCu alloy
This research investigated the influence of varying copper (Cu) concentrations (0, 5, 7, and 9 wt.%)on the sintering behaviour, microstructural development, and mechanical characteristics of Ti-18Nb alloy, fabricated through conventional powder metallurgy. Under specific sintering conditions (1150°C for 5 hours), Cu addition led to a more homogeneous microstructure and promoted the complete dissolution of Nb particles. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed the presence of alpha (α) and beta (β) Ti phases, along with the Ti2Cu phase, with its peak intensity increasing as Cu content rose. Mechanical properties were significantly enhanced by Cu addition. Yield strength increased almost linearly with Cu content. Compressive strength notably increased with 7 wt.% Cu, reaching 980 MPa, and slightly exceeded this value with 9 wt.% Cu. Hardness values increased due to solid solution strengthening in the α-Ti phase and the precipitation of the Ti2Cu phase, with the highest hardness (222 HV) observed in the 7 wt.% Cu alloy. The elastic modulus initially increased with 5 wt.% Cu, then subsequently decreased with further Cu additions; the Ti-18Nb-7Cu alloy exhibited the lowest elastic modulus at 13.34 GPa. Furthermore, the resilience of the alloys improved with the formation of the Ti2Cu phase, and a maximum value of 13.15 MJ m−3 was achieved.
The influence of cold, warm and hot deformation on microstructure and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 superalloy
This study systematically examines the influence of precipitation on the microstructural and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 superalloy in as-received, solution heat-treated, peak-aged, and overaged conditions. Cold, warm, and hot deformation tests were performed at 25 °C, 400 °C and 800 °C using a constant strain rate of 5.55 × 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹. The results indicated dynamic strain aging during warm deformation at 400 °C in all investigated conditions. However, at temperatures above 400 °C, a pronounced reduction in strength was observed, accompanied by a corresponding increase in elongation for most conditions. Notably, the solution heat-treated samples exhibited anomalous behavior, showing an increase in Rp0.2 after deformation at 800 °C. This suggests the occurrence of dynamic precipitation during hot deformation in the solution heat-treated samples.
The influence of nickel grade and its occurrence state on high pressure acid leaching behavior of lateritic nickel ores
This research evaluates the effects of nickel grade and occurrence state on the leaching behavior of lateritic nickel ores using high-pressure acid leaching (HPAL) at 250 °C with sulfuric acid. Three ores were selected for the study: Ore 1 (ultra-low-grade limonite, 0.73 wt.% Ni), Ore 2 (limonite, 1.34 wt.% Ni), and Ore 3 (saprolite, 2.00 wt.% Ni). Mineralogical studies (XRD, SEM, and EPMA) were conducted to provide insight into nickel-hosting phases and characteristics of the ore matrix. A higher nickel grade does not necessarily result in higher extraction. Ore 1 had the lowest nickel grade but achieved the highest extraction of Ni (97.25%) and Co (98.49%) under experimental conditions using an acid-to-ore (A/O) ratio of 0.40. This significant Ni extraction is attributed to nickel's structural substitution in goethite, an iron oxide mineral that dissolves readily under the HPAL process. Ore 2 also contains goethite as the dominant phase and achieved similarly high recoveries of Ni (97%) and Co (98%), however, Co recovery decreased slightly under higher acid conditions due to co-precipitation with hematite. Ore 3 had the highest nickel grade but the lowest leaching efficiency (<90% Ni). The generally low recoveries may be attributed to nickel being hosted in both goethite (a leachable phase) and lizardite (a less leachable phase). The silicate matrix of lizardite and its elevated magnesium content restricted the effective acid range and thus diminished nickel selectivity during the HPAL leaching process. The results highlight that the mineralogical occurrence state of nickel is more important than nickel grade in determining leaching performance. Therefore, low-grade limonite ores with favorable mineralogy can serve as potential feed sources for environmentally friendly sustainable nickel hydrometallurgical extraction.
Extraction of vanadium from pet-coke gasification cinder: Part 1 leaching kinetics studies in sulphuric acid medium
Petcoke cinder is a solid by-product generated during the gasification of petcoke, accounting for three to five percent of the petroleum coke mass. It commonly contains valuable metals like V, Ni, Al, and Fe, highlighting the resource's potential for vanadium extraction. Thus, it can be regarded as an emerging secondary source of vanadium and other critical metals. The conventional pyro-cum-hydrometallurgical process for vanadium recovery relied on alkali roasting, which was not only energy-intensive but also contributed to greenhouse gas emissions. Considering environmental concerns and high energy consumption, the current study embodies a state-of-the-art development of an economically viable process for extracting V from petcoke gasification cinders. This paper examines the method of sulfuric acid-leaching of vanadium from gasification cinders and the effects of various parameters, including acid concentration, temperature, process duration, percentage of H2O2, amount of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), and solid-liquid phase ratios. The maximum vanadium yield of 95.62% was achieved under optimal conditions of sulfuric acid concentration, temperature, time, S/L ratio, and amounts of H2O2 and SDS, which were determined to be 4M, 90°C, 3 hours, 20%, and 6%, respectively. The shrinking surface-controlled model was employed to investigate leaching kinetics. The reaction order concerning sulfuric acid concentrations was found to be 1.29. According to the Arrhenius equation, the evaluated apparent activation energy for leaching was approximately 27.67 kJ/mol, and the empirical equation representing the acid leaching kinetics of vanadium is identified as 1-(1-α)1/3 = kt = (9.261 X 103) [H2SO4]1.2916exp[-27674/RT] T.
Oxidation and property evolution of AISI T5 steel under varying heat treatments
This study evaluates the effect of heat treatment on the mechanical, tribological, and oxidation behavior of AISI T5 steel. The chemical composition was first characterized using spectroscopy and SEM. A two-year oxidation test conducted in humid and relatively dry atmospheres showed strong environmental sensitivity: in humid air, the oxidation rate reached 11.27×10-2 P/P0 per month with a sharp increase after 25 days, whereas in dry air it remained below1.35×10-2 P/P0 per month, following a linear and nearly flat trend indicative of a protective oxide scale. Heat treatment significantly increased hardness from 34.15 ± 0.59 HRC (untreated) to 62.70 ± 0.66 and 60.80 ± 0.48 HRC for water and oil quenched steels, respectively. Impact strength decreased accordingly, with oil quenching offering the best hardness-toughness balance (60.8 HRC, 2.08 Kcv). Instrumented indentation confirmed substantial surface strengthening, with HIT rising to 17.39 ± 0.29 GPa (Q. Water) and 7.68 ± 0.12 GPa (Q. Oil). Under dry sliding, wear rates were reduced by 81.3% (Q. Water) and 62.5% (Q. Oil), with faster run-in in the water-quenched condition. XRD revealed tempered martensite with Fe3W3C/Cr7C3 (Q. Water) and Co3W3C (Q. Oil), consistent with thermal conditions. This study provides new experimental data on the effects of 15-minute austenitization followed by oil or water quenching on the properties of AISI T5 steel, highlighting its potential for process optimization.
Effect of copper addition on the microstructure, mechanical, thermal, and magnetic properties of Fe-Ni-Cu alloys
In this study, FeNiCu alloys with two different copper contents were produced by arc melting. The aim was to investigate the effects of Cu content on the microstructural, mechanical, thermal, and Mössbauer properties of the alloys. Microstructures were examined using SEM micrographs. Vickers hardness tests were conducted to evaluate mechanical strength. Thermal behavior was analyzed using DSC. Magnetic characteristics were studied by Mössbauer spectroscopy. SEM analysis showed the presence of martensitic structures in both alloys, with the alloy containing more Cu exhibiting a higher amount of martensite. Hardness increased from 169.1 HV to 190.2 HV as Cu content increased. DSC results confirmed the martensitic transformation. The alloy with higher Cu content showed a higher transformation temperature and greater transformation energy released. Mössbauer spectra indicated the presence of both magnetically ordered and non-ordered phases in both alloys. Hyperfine parameters demonstrated changes in the local atomic environment due to Cu addition. The weak singlet obtained was associated with the FCC phase. The two sextets were attributed to ferromagnetic BCC phases arising from different environments of the Fe atom. The other sextet, with a low internal magnetic field of around 18 T, was ascribed to possible Ni- and/or Cu-rich surroundings of the Fe atom. Overall, increasing Cu in the alloy altered the microstructure, improved hardness, shifted the martensitic transformation temperature, and modified the magnetic hyperfine interactions. These results may aid in designing advanced Fe-based materials for structural and magnetic applications.
Effects of welding parameters on percentage dilution and mechanical properties in welded joints of ultra-high hardness armour steels
This study investigates the effects of Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) parameters—specifically welding speed and stick-out—on the dilution and mechanical properties of welded joints composed of ultra-high hardness quenched and tempered (UHH-Q&T) armor steel and austenitic stainless steel filler metal. An optimization methodology was used to set constant parameters, including wire diameter, gas flow rate, welding voltage, and wire feed speed, based on equipment capabilities. Experimental trials varied welding speed and electrode stick-out while maintaining a constant current through inductance control. Although the welding parameters affected the melted base and filler metal areas, the dilution percentage remained unaffected. The correlation between dilution and welding current was validated. Microstructural and mechanical analyses confirmed the consistent behavior of the welded joints under the tested conditions.
Antimony obtaining by hydrometallurgy - Emphasis on recovery from leach solutions
Antimony (Sb) is listed as a critical raw material in both Europe and the USA. Pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical methods are used for its recovery from raw sources. Hydrometallurgy is considered a suitable technology when Sb sources are low-grade ores or technogenic waste. After a brief introduction to the Sb species present in pregnant leach solutions (PLS) obtained by using different leaching reagents, this paper presents various methods for recovering Sb from PLS produced in the leaching hydrometallurgical stage. The discussion covers antimony recovery by hydrolysis and conversion, selective precipitation, crystallization, electrowinning, replacement, liquid-liquid extraction and ion exchange. Factors affecting the effectiveness of these processes and the recent attempts to improve these technologies are presented. Finally, possible future research directions are outlined.
Effect of reduction ratio on die fill-out and hardness profile of cold-drawn polygonal rods made of acid resistant steel X6CrNiTi18-10
The study investigates the effect of the reduction ratio on strain hardening efficiency and load during the drawing process of austenitic acid-resistant steel X6CrNiTi18-10. The focus is on optimizing geometry-related process conditions to achieve the highest quality and productivity when drawing special-purpose rods with polygonal shapes, specifically square and hexagonal cross-sections. The research addresses how increasing the reduction ratio can enhance strain hardening while reducing the number of drawing passes, ultimately affecting quality and load. Numerical modeling was used to analyze the relationship between strain hardening and load versus the reduction ratio. Proper models and assumptions were formulated and subsequently verified through experiments, which confirmed the validity of the mathematical and numerical models for load estimation. The study quantified the effect of strain on strength properties by mapping of measured hardness along the strain gradient. The application of variable billet diameters produced a similar hardness profiles for both analyzed rod geometries and reversed the effect on underfilling of the corners. The findings indicate a threshold reduction ratio for producing sound rods with square or hexagonal cross-sections. Exceeding this threshold can cause excessive strain hardening, leading to increased hardness that impedes corner fill-out and/or results in failure.
Optimizing calcium additions for a strength–corrosion resistance balance in squeeze-cast Zn–Al–Cu–Mg alloys
In this study, squeeze-cast Zn–Al–Cu–Mg alloys with varying Ca additions (0, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 wt.%) were investigated to evaluate the combined effects of microstructural evolution on mechanical and corrosion performance. Microstructural analysis showed a transition from coarse Zn-rich dendrites in the base alloy to a refined and uniform morphology with Ca additions up to 1.0 wt.%, followed by coarsening and increased porosity at 1.5 wt.% Ca due to excessive intermetallic formation. Mechanical testing indicated that the alloy with 1.0 wt.% Ca had the highest hardness (141 HV0.1) and tensile strength (359 MPa), attributed to grain refinement and dispersion strengthening, though with reduced ductility due to intermetallic brittleness. Electrochemical corrosion tests in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution showed that the corrosion rate decreased from the base alloy to 1.0 wt.% Ca, confirming enhanced corrosion resistance due to microstructural refinement and protective film formation. However, excessive Ca addition (1.5 wt.%) increased the corrosion rate to 0.8109 mpy due to coarse intermetallics and porosity, which promoted localized attack. The results highlight that optimal Ca addition (1.0 wt.%) achieves a balance between strength, hardness, and corrosion resistance, making Ca-modified Zn–Al–Cu–Mg alloys promising candidates for structural and functional applications.
Enhancing Corrosion Resistance and Structural Properties of Ni-TiO2 Composite Coatings: The Impact of SDS Surfactant
Ni-TiO2 composite coatings are promising materials for enhancing the corrosion resistance and structural properties of steel substrates in various industrial applications. Corrosion remains a major issue for steel components, prompting the need for effective protective coatings. This study investigates the influence of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) surfactant on the structural, electrochemical, mechanical, and morphological properties of Ni-TiO2 composite coatings electrodeposited on BS2 steel. The coatings were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), microhardness testing, and electrochemical techniques, including potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The results show that SDS incorporation led to an increase in the crystallite size of the coatings, from 35.92 nm to 80.82 nm, and a significant enhancement in the relative texture coefficient (RTC) along the (200) plane (88.09%). SEM analysis revealed a more compact and uniform surface morphology, with SDS reducing surface porosity from 8.23 × 10-3% to 2.20 × 10-6%. Electrochemical measurements demonstrated a substantial improvement in corrosion resistance, with charge transfer resistance (Rct) increasing from 5.17 kΩ.cm2 to 312.65 kΩ.cm2 and polarization resistance (Rp) rising from 2.5 kΩ.cm2 to 176.38 kΩ.cm2. The microhardness of the coatings decreased slightly from 256.26 kgf.mm-2 to 217.22 kgf.mm⁻², indicating a trade-off between mechanical strength and enhanced corrosion protection. These findings highlight the potential of SDS as a valuable additive for optimizing Ni-TiO2 composite coatings, although further research is needed to explore the impact of SDS concentration, long-term durability, and the performance of these coatings in more aggressive environments.
Microstructure changes in welded duplex stainless steel and their effects on hardness and corrosion resistance
Duplex stainless steel (DSS) is extensively employed in a range of applications because it contains equal proportions of the two phases, ferrite and austenite, as well as a specific percentage of alloying elements. These combined benefits provide the material with superior strength, corrosion resistance, and good welding capacity. During the welding process of DSS, equal amounts of both phases are disrupted, resulting in precipitation. To investigate this phenomenon, this study aims to analyze the effect of changes in welding current by adding 10% N2 with Ar (as a shielding gas) on microstructure changes of DSS weldment. The changes were evaluated through the hardness and corrosion resistance. The study found that by increasing welding current, the Cr2N precipitates disappear in the WZ, with a small amount appearing only in the HAZ. However, the very low welding current causes the formation of Cr2N precipitates in both the WZ and HAZ. The results indicate a direct relationship between the volume fraction of austenite and the welding current. Reducing the welding current increases the hardness of DSS welds due to a higher ferrite volume fraction. Moreover, the corrosion resistance of DSS weldment improves with an increase in the welding current due to the increase in the amount of austenite phase.
Microstructure and hardness of Bi-modified magnesium AZ31 alloys subjected to severe plastic deformation
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</xml><![endif]--><!-- [if gte mso 10]> <![endif]--> Magnesium alloys are known as attractive materials because of their low density and good thermal conductivity. However, compared to competing metallic materials such as aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys have lower strength. Among different methods introduced for strengthening metallic materials, severe plastic deformation is notable for its efficiency and relative simplicity. This study investigates the effect of bismuth content on the microstructure evolution and hardness of magnesium AZ31 alloy subjected to severe plastic deformation through equal channel angular pressing. For this purpose, AZ31 alloys with nominal bismuth contents of 0%, 1%, and 3% were processed by up to four passes of equal channel angular pressing at 300 °C. The microstructure evolution of these alloys was then examined using optical and scanning electron microscopy. The hardness of the specimens was measured using the Vickers method. Results show that bismuth-enriched second-phase particles are fragmented during severe plastic deformation. Additionally, increasing the bismuth content leads to more rapid grain refinement during severe plastic deformation due to the pinning effect of these second-phase particles on the grain boundaries. Faster hardening rates during severe plastic deformation were observed for the bismuth-containing AZ31 alloys. This effect is attributed to the more rapid grain refinement and the increase in the Hall-Petch coefficient resulting from the presence of fine bismuth-enriched particles.
Constitutive analysis of Cu-DHP alloy during hot compression
<!-- [if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!-- [if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" LatentStyleCount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!-- [if gte mso 10]> <![endif]--> The hot deformation behavior of the deoxidized high-phosphorus copper (Cu-DHP) was investigated during compressive deformation at a wide deformation temperature range of 200 to 1000 °C and strain rates ranging from 0.0005 to 0.4 s-1. The flow curves related to the hot working regime (500 to 1000 °C) generally showed distinct peak stresses with the fall of flow stress after the peak point, revealing the occurrence of dynamic recrystallization (DRX). By increasing the Zener-Hollomon parameter, the cyclic flow curves were replaced by the single-peak ones, and finally by the characteristic dynamic recovery (DRV) curves. At temperatures lower than half of the melting point, only DRV-type curves were observed. Based on the constitutive analysis, the apparent activation energy of 274.1 kJ/mol, hyperbolic sine power of 4.88, and power law stress exponent of 5.27 were obtained, resulting in the flow stress equations to describe material flow in the hot working regime. The power law breakdown and the importance of deformation temperature were also critically discussed based on mathematical fitting, strain rate sensitivity index, and microstructural analysis.
Studying the structure and properties of quasi high-entropy alloys of the Fe-Co-Cr-Ni-Mn-Nb system with Mo additives
The paper presents the results of studying the structure, hardness and wear resistance of quasi high-entropy alloys of the Fe-Co-Cr-Ni-Mn-Nb system with Mo additives. As a result of the study, it was shown that quasi high-entropy alloys of the Fe-Cr-Mn-Ni-Co-Nb system smelted with partial use of ferroalloys and additionally alloyed with Mo in the amount of 5-15% by weight, demonstrated very system alloys without Mo additives. The structure of the studied samples is represented by a mixture of solid solutions of Mn, Fe, Co, Ni of the face-centered cubic typе (FCC), Nb and Mo of the body centered cubic type (BCC), as well as interstitial phases: a carbide phase, a Laves phase and a σ-phase.
Effect of adsorption of surfactant mixtures on wettability of sintering dust
In order to improve the wettability of sintering dust, we investigated the action mechanism of Triton X-100 (TX-100), which synergizes with Dodecyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (DTAB). The settling times of nine different types of surfactants were measured, and the optimal ratio of cationic and nonionic surfactants to synergistically improve the wettability of sintering dust was determined from these measurements. The adsorption performance of the surfactants in the mixed solution and their effect on the wetting properties of sintering dust were investigated by sedimentation test, adsorption amount, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and zeta potential determination. The results showed that a synergistic effect could be obtained when DTAB and TX-100 were mixed, and the DTAB: TX-100=2:2 composite solution with a concentration of 0.3% had a good wetting effect on the sintering dust. As the concentration of the surfactant mixtures increased, the content of hydrophilic functional groups and the absolute potential value of the surface of the sintering dust increased accordingly. Among them, DTAB was affected by alkyl interactions and had a greater adsorption affinity, and the hydrophobic tail of TX-100 was entangled with that of DTAB due to hydrophobic interactions and shared an adsorption site. This study contributes to the selection of surfactants for the efficient wetting of sintering dust and provides a theoretical basis for hydrometallurgy and dust control.
Gold recovery and migration mechanism in the copper smelting and converting
The gold embedded in the copper concentrate is enriched in the matte phase during copper smelting and transferred into blister copper during subsequent processing, via which the gold was recycled. In the copper smelting, gold dissolved and appeared as Au (Ⅲ) in the formed gold-matte solid solution. This solid solution could be formed in two ways: by exchanging Au atoms for Cu atoms in the Cu5FeS4 (matte) crystal lattice and by doping Au atoms in Cu5FeS4. In the matte converting, the transfer of gold from the matte phase to blister copper occurred spontaneously due to a fact that the surface tension between the gold and matte phases was considerably higher than that between the gold and copper phases. Gold capture by blister copper occurred by Au atoms replacing Cu atoms in the Cu cell.
Diffusion bonding of RAFM steels: evolution of interfacial oxide layer with pressure and microstructure and mechanical property after post bonding heat treatment
The effect of elevating the bonding pressure from 10 to 20 MPa (5 MPa interval) at 1050 oC for 60 minutes on the diffusion bonded joint of reduced activation ferritic/martensitic (RAFM) steel was studied. The results indicate that as the bonding pressure increases, the joint quality correspondingly improves. The oxide layer at the bonding interface underwent an evolution process from continuous to discontinuous and ultimately disappeared with the increase of bonding pressure. The optimal joint was achieved at the pressure of 20 MPa in this work. Considering the exploration of joint reliability in engineering applications, the optimal joint was subjected to a post bonding heat treatment (PBHT) of 750 oC for 90 minutes. The diffusion bonding sample subjected to PBHT displays microstructural characteristics and tensile properties similar to those of the base metal. Notably, tensile fracture does not occur at the bonding interface, but in the base metal far from the interface.
Copyright (c) 2024 Journal of Mining and Metallurgy, Section B: Metallurgy
Analysis on premature cracking causes of ASTM A213-T12 superheater tube
The failure behavior of superheater tube prepared by ASTM A213-T12 steel was studied. The microstructure and hardness at different positions of the tube, and the element distribution at the crack position, as well as the morphology and phase composition of the corrosion layer were analyzed using optical microscopy (OM), microhardness tester, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray diffractometer (XRD). The results indicate that the pearlite at the failure position undergoes spheroidization and the hardness is significantly reduced compared to the normal position. Failure is closely related to corrosion and creep. On the one hand, there is sulfur corrosion and oxidation corrosion on the outer layer of the superheater tube, which seriously reduces the thickness of the tube. On the other hand, the creep resistance of the tube is significantly reduced due to thinning. There are numerous creep voids in the microstructure at the failure site. Meanwhile, oxygen can diffuse into the voids to promote oxidation corrosion.
A qualitative study of multiphase steel microstructure developed in four different steel alloys
In this work, quench and partitioning (Q&P) heat treatment was performed on four different steel alloys in order to obtain multiphase steels having a microstructure containing ferrite, martensite, bainite, and retained austenite. The four alloys are SS1672, 38MnVS6, R350HT and SS2244. They are chosen to study the effect of increasing the Mn/Si ratio and the Cr effect on the microstructure. Multiphase steels with retained austenite of different fractions and morphologies in a ferritic-bainitic matrix have been obtained depending on the Cr and Si amounts. Detailed characterisation of the microstructural evolution of Q&P heat-treated four steel alloys by optical microscopy (OM) was done only to provide a qualitative understanding. Despite these limitations, the OM micrographs were sufficient to confirm and identify the formed phases, especially the bainite phase. It is found from this work that high Si levels are not strictly necessary to prevent pearlite formation during the Q&P treatment of medium and eutectoid steels, due to the presence of manganese. A Mn/Si ratio greater than 2 is found to be necessary to prevent pearlite formation. Also, a lower martensite start temperature (Ms) leads to a significant refinement of the microstructure components bainite and retained austenite.
Study of drying kinetics and moisture diffusivity in iron ore briquettes after using different drying techniques
This study aimed to investigate the drying kinetics, effective moisture diffusivity and thermal degradation properties of iron ore briquettes using hot air drying, microwave drying, and infrared drying methods. The results showed that in both hot air and infrared drying, drying occurs gradually, starting with drying of the outer surface and gradually moving towards the inner core of the briquette. In microwave drying, the iron ore briquette is heated from the inside out. The moisture diffusion capacity is moderate at 100 W, lower at 180 W, and very high at 300 W. In both hot air and infrared drying, the moisture diffusivity is low at 105 °C, and the maximum strength is observed at 120 °C. The compressive strength was analyzed after applying the different drying methods, and the highest strength of 4.195 N/mm² was measured at 120 °C in the infrared chamber. The kinetic drying curves for the hot air, microwave, and infrared methods were analyzed using five different moisture ratio (MR) models: Newton, Henderson and Pabis, Logarithmic, Diffusion, and Wang & Singh. This research will provide valuable insight into the degradation of iron ore briquettes after the optimal removal of approximately 90% of the moisture from the sample. This approach will also guide the production of high quality dried products and assist in the production of green briquettes with lower carbon emissions. In this work, heat induration is used for drying as opposed to techniques such as sintering and nodulation where the agglomerates are heated at high temperatures of about 1100 °C and higher carbon emissions are produced.
Effect of bottom argon blowing flow rate on evolution behavior of steel-slag interface
In this research, the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software FLUENT is used, which employs the finite volume method, to integrate discrete phase models and multiphase flow models in numerical simulations based on a prototype steel ladle from a particular facility. The simulations aim to investigate the slag entrapment phenomenon in bottom argon blowing. The slag layer is filled with DPM (Discrete Phase Model) particles whose densities are consistent with slag. These particles are used to simulate actual non-metallic inclusions in the slag. If the height of a particle is less than the minimum height of the slag layer, it is thought to have been entrained into the molten steel. By using the User Defined Function (UDF), the tracking of this particle is stopped. The simulation results reveal that the slag eyes have a tendency to increase in size as the argon flow rate increases. The slag eyes area is generally small when the argon flow rate is below 500 L/min. However, there is a noticeable increase in the slag eyes area when the argon flow rate exceeds 1000 L/min. The number of particles entrained into the molten steel increases as the argon flow rate increases; the number of particles entering the steel increases gradually below 1000 L/min and dramatically over 1000 L/min.
Study on the fabrication of active CaO from steel slag of the converter and its application in CO2 adsorption process
Using an acetic acid leaching process to extract calcium components from converter steel slag, evaporation, and crystallization to obtain high-purity CaO material. The influence of leaching parameters on the CaO content of the material was investigated. The shrinking core model was applied to analyze the leaching rate in a weakly acidic solution. Finally, the CO2 adsorption performance of the CaO material under different adsorption conditions was evaluated, and the adsorption process and reaction mechanism were investigated using XRD and SEM analysis. The results showed that leaching temperature and acetic acid concentration significantly impacted the CaO content. The optimal leaching parameters were found to be an acid concentration of 1 M, a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:10, a leaching temperature of 70 °C, and a duration of 2 h, under which the CaO content reached a maximum of 86.3%. Kinetic results indicated that stirring shifted the rate-controlling step of calcium leaching from external diffusion and surface chemical reactions to internal diffusion. In the temperature range of 40-70 °C, the rate-controlling step was governed by internal diffusion. XRD and SEM results confirmed the high purity of the CaO material. CaO first transformed into Ca(OH)2, which adsorbed CO2 to form CaCO3. The deposition of CaCO3 on the material surface hindered the contact between Ca(OH)2 and CO2, reducing carbon adsorption efficiency. Increasing the CaO content enhanced adsorption performance significantly. In the adsorption temperature range of 0-100 °C, ensuring effective contact between Ca(OH)2 and CO2 was crucial. The calculated CO2 capture capacities at 30 °C, 50 °C, and 70 °C were 0.32 g/g, 0.24 g/g, and 0.17 g/g, respectively. This study can provide a reference for the high-value utilization of steel slag and the reduction of CO2 emission in iron and steel enterprises.
Contribution to the study of toughness in creep resistant steel welded joint
Steel P91 is widely used in power stations due to its goоd creep resistance and predictable performance. The aim of this work was to compare the toughness values of different zones in the weld joint with a sample subjected to a simulated thermal cycle. The workpieces were welded using Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) for the root pass and Manual Metal Arc (MMA) for the filler deposition. Post Welding Heat Treatment (PWHT) was carried out at 740 °C for 2 hours. The welded joint was tested for microstructure, macrostructure, hardness, strength and toughness. The macrostructure showed all typical zones with a tempered martensite microstructure. The difference in the carbide distribution, which were confirmed by the hardness measurements, are the result of variations in the chemical composition. The tensile strength and the fracture which occurred in the base metal, indicate good properties of the welded joint. The crack initiation energies determined were similar in the Base Metal (BM), Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ), and Weld Metal (WM), while the crack propagation energy was lowest in the WM. This indicates that carbides control the crack initiation energy, while their distribution influences the crack propagation. The simulated HAZ samples showed lower toughness compared to the welded specimens, which can be attributed to the differences in the performed thermal cycles. During welding, the HAZ undergoes several thermal cycles in each pass, resulting in smaller austenitic grains compared to the simulated HAZ. Lower values of toughness indicate that the simulation provides a conservative approach, i.e. the measured toughness is lower than the toughness in a real welded butt.
Evolution behavior of oxide inclusions in Si-Mn deoxidized steel during billet heating process
To reduce the harm of oxide inclusions to the quality of Si-Mn deoxidized steel products, the effects of heat treatment temperature and isothermal heating time on the composition and morphology of inclusions are studied. The Si-Mn deoxidized steel LX82A billets are isothermal heating at 1000 °C, 1100 °C, 1200 °C for 8h, 10h and 12h, respectively. The results show that the inclusions change from oval to round gradually with the increase of heat treatment temperature. When the heat treatment temperature rises to 1200 ℃, the oxide inclusions completely transform into MnO-SiO2-Al2O3 system. With the increase of heat treatment temperature, the MnO content in inclusions increases significantly. The SiO2 content increases first and then decreases. The CaO and Al2O3 content decreases obviously at 1200 ℃. The MgO content does not change significantly during the heat treatment process. When the heat treatment temperature is 1000 and 1100 ℃, the average composition of the oxide changes the most when the holding time is 10 h. When the holding time is 10 h, the average content of SiO2 increases and the average content of CaO decreases. Under the condition of heat treatment at 1100 ℃ for 10 h, the average content of MnO increases. When the heat treatment temperature reaches 1200 ℃, with the extension of holding time, the average content of the five components in the silicon-manganese deoxidized steel basically does not change.At a heating temperature of 1200°C, calcium treatment is facilitated, and the formation of a Mn-depleted zone occurs, thereby improving the steel quality and enhancing its performance. Moreover, oxide inclusions exhibit better deformability and lower melting points. Therefore, the heat treatment temperature should be maintained around 1200°C to optimize these properties.
High-strength and high-conductivity Cu-0.7Mg-0.1Ca alloy fabricated via heat treatment and severe plastic deformation
In this research, the effect of annealing in combination with severe plastic deformation (SPD) by the MaxStrain component of the Gleeble thermo-mechanical testing device on the microstructural characteristics, tensile behavior, and electrical conductivity of a Cu-0.7Mg-0.1Ca (wt%) alloy was investigated. The as-cast material was subjected to two treatments: annealing at 923 K for 15 min, followed by cooling in air, and annealing at 923 K for 75 min, followed by quenching in agitated water, which resulted in irregular and partially spheroidized Cu5Ca particles. Subsequent MaxStrain deformation resulted in a remarkable grain refinement by dynamic recrystallization (DRX), in which the annealed and quenched sample exhibited a higher DRX fraction than the annealed and air-cooled sample. As a result, the annealed and quenched samples showed a better synergy between strength and ductility, while these improvements were accompanied by only ~1% reduction in electrical conductivity. Accordingly, the present work demonstrated that annealing and subsequent SPD processing is as an effective method for processing high-strength and high-conductivity (HSHC) copper alloys.
Two-stage leaching of germanium from copper cake under subsequent non-oxidizing and oxidizing conditions
Many world economies consider germanium as a critical raw material. Therefore, the development of its recovery from new sources is becoming more and more important. The leaching of copper cake, originating from the purification of zinc electrolyte, in sulfuric acid solution is presented in the paper. The cake contained 24.7% Cu, 21.2% Cd, 16.3% Zn, 4.50% Pb, 3.96% Ni, 3.22% Co and 231 ppm Ge. The leaching of wet and dried material was examined. It was found that the highest germanium recovery was achieved for a two-stage process composed of leaching under non-oxidizing conditions followed by pH adjustment with sodium carbonate followed by oxidizing leaching of residue from the first stage. In the first stage leaching in 12.5% sulfuric acid and later pH adjustment to >2.0 reduced germanium leaching yield to <10%. During oxidizing leaching of remaining residue in 15% sulfuric acid >99% of germanium was leached. The final solution contained 30 mg/dm3 Ge and 72.4 g/dm3 Cu. Germanium may be later recovered from the solution by precipitation with tannic acid or solvent extraction.